Nanomaterial-based biosensors for environmental monitoring and pollution detection: advances, challenges, and prospects.

Abstract

Nanomaterial-based biosensors have emerged as powerful tools for rapid monitoring and detection of environmental pollution, offering unprecedented sensitivity, selectivity, and real-time analysis capabilities. This critical review provides a comprehensive evaluation of recent advances in nanomaterial-enabled biosensing platforms-including metal and metal-oxide nanoparticles, carbon-based nanomaterials (graphene, CNTs), quantum dots, and polymeric nanocomposites-highlighting their unique physicochemical properties that enhance signal transduction, miniaturization, and multiplexing. We discuss the integration of these nanomaterials into diverse biosensing modalities, such as electrochemical, optical, piezoelectric, and microfluidic systems, with emphasis on their application in detecting heavy metals, pesticides, endocrine-disrupting compounds, pathogens, and emerging contaminants (e.g., PFAS, microplastics). Critical challenges including surface fouling, matrix interferences, reproducibility, stability, and scalability are critically examined, alongside regulatory and commercialization hurdles. Furthermore, we explore recent trends toward portable, IoT-connected, and field-deployable biosensors, as well as machine learning-driven data analysis for improved decision-making. Finally, the review outlines future prospects, emphasizing the need for sustainable sensor fabrication, standardization protocols, and integration with global environmental monitoring networks to enable timely, actionable responses to pollution events. This article aims to guide researchers, policymakers, and technologists in shaping the next generation of smart, nanomaterial-enabled biosensing systems for safeguarding environmental and public health.

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