Multidimensional Protein-Based Antimicrobial Materials: Construction, Mechanisms, and Applications.

Abstract

Bacterial contamination and associated infections remain persistent threats to global public health. Proteins, as renewable biomacromolecules with diverse functional groups, programmable hierarchical structures, and favorable biocompatibility, have emerged as versatile building blocks for antimicrobial materials. Through self-assembly, amyloid-like aggregation, interfacial engineering, and chemical or physical functionalization, proteins can be constructed into zero-dimensional (0D) micro/nanoparticles, one-dimensional (1D) fibers, two-dimensional (2D) films and coatings, and three-dimensional (3D) hydrogels, aerogels, and sponge scaffolds. Dimensional architecture extends beyond morphological classification: it governs active-site exposure, interfacial contact, mass transport, mechanical properties, and antimicrobial-agent retention and release, thereby determining bactericidal activity, resistance to bacterial adhesion, and antibiofilm performance. Nevertheless, the relationships connecting dimensional construction, interfacial structure, antimicrobial mechanism, and application-specific performance remain fragmented. This review therefore adopts dimensionality as the central framework for critically examining the structural design, assembly, and functionalization of protein-based antimicrobial materials across 0D-3D architectures. Particular emphasis is placed on how dimensional features regulate the antimicrobial mechanisms involving membrane disruption, cell-wall hydrolysis, reactive oxygen species generation, physical bacterial trapping, controlled antimicrobial release, and resistance to bacterial adhesion. Recent advances in the applications of these antimicrobial materials, categorized by their dimensional architectures, are further evaluated across biomedicine, food preservation, functional textiles, and agriculture in relation to their operating environments and functional requirements. Finally, challenges concerning mechanistic validation, long-term stability, scalable manufacturing, biological safety, and application-specific evaluation are critically discussed to identify barriers to practical implementation and future directions for technological translation. Emerging opportunities in AI-assisted protein and peptide design, precise interfacial engineering, and multifunctional integration are further highlighted to guide the rational development of next-generation protein-based antimicrobial materials.

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